A Registered Dietitian's Guide to Essential Supplements for a Vegan Diet is a research-backed approach to staying healthy and thriving on a plant-based lifestyle. A well-planned vegan diet can provide most of the nutrients your body needs, but a few key supplements help fill in the gaps. While whole plant foods offer an abundance of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, some nutrients are harder to obtain in optimal amounts without supplementation.
Always consult a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen, especially if you have existing health conditions or concerns.
This blog post was inspired by my Strong Bone Foods Guide, Menopause Diet Guide, and my Vegan Food List for Beginners. You might also be interested in how different cooking methods can produce harmful substances called Advanced Glycation End-products (AGEs), which may accelerate aging. Visit my nutrition articles here.
Jump to:
- 💊 Vitamin B12: The Non-Negotiable
- ☀️ Vitamin D: The Sunshine Vitamin
- 🍘 Iodine: Thyroid Support
- 🦴 Calcium
- 🥬 Iron
- 🐠 Omega-3 (EPA & DHA)
- 💪🏼 Creatine
- 🏋🏽 My Creatine
- 🌰 Selenium
- 🌾 Zinc
- 🄺 The Controversy Around Vitamin K Supplements
- 💭 Final Thoughts on Essential Supplements for a Vegan Diet
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- 🏋🏽 15 % off Cleanest Creatine
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💊 Vitamin B12: The Non-Negotiable
Vitamin B12 supplementation is crucial for all vegans and also important for vegetarians, who often have low levels. Studies show that while anyone can have low vitamin B12 levels, vegetarians and vegans are at higher risk, especially those who do not take supplements (1,2). Vitamin B12 is essential for protein metabolism, red blood cell formation, and nervous system health (3). A deficiency can lead to anemia, nervous system damage, infertility, and an increased risk of bone and heart disease (4, 5).
Aim for 2,000 mcg of cyanocobalamin (the most stable and well-tested form) once a week, ideally taken as a chewable, sublingual, or liquid supplement on an empty stomach for optimal absorption (6). Alternatively, you can take 50 mcg of cyanocobalamin daily. If you prefer to meet your B12 needs through fortified foods, include them at each meal, with each serving providing at least 190% of the Daily Value (around 4.5 mcg per serving).
If you’re over 65, consider taking 1,000 mcg of cyanocobalamin daily (7). Always take a separate B12 supplement, not as part of a multivitamin (8).
If you’re experiencing or suspecting deficiency symptoms, the most reliable test to request is a urine MMA (methylmalonic acid) test, rather than a serum B12 level test (9). Many doctors mistakenly rely on serum B12 levels, which can miss a severe functional deficiency. Normal blood B12 levels don’t always reflect the true B12 status in your cells (10).
☀️ Vitamin D: The Sunshine Vitamin
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that supports calcium and phosphorus absorption, aiding bone health (1). It also plays a role in immune function, mood regulation, memory, and muscle recovery (2, 3, 4).
The Endocrine Society's latest guidelines recommend that adults aim to meet the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for vitamin D—600 IU per day for those aged 19–70, and 800 IU per day for those over 70 (5). If diet alone isn't enough, supplementation is encouraged. The panel reviewed evidence on taking vitamin D beyond the RDA without testing blood levels (known as "empiric supplementation") and found it may benefit adults over 75, children under 18, pregnant women, and those at high risk for prediabetes. For these groups, daily low-dose supplementation is preferred over high-dose, intermittent use. However, the panel advises against exceeding the RDA in healthy adults under 75 unless they have specific health conditions or take medications that affect vitamin D levels (6).
Few foods naturally contain vitamin D, and while some are fortified, it's challenging to get enough through food alone (7). For many, taking a supplement is the best way to meet their vitamin D needs. Vitamin D3, produced by the skin in sunlight, is often supplemented by those in higher latitudes, with darker skin, or who are frequently indoors. A daily dose of 800 IU of vitamin D3, particularly when taken with your largest meal, has been linked to longevity benefits like telomere lengthening, although overall research on this shows conflicting results at this time (8).
While most D3 supplements come from lanolin, vegan options from lichen are available. Doctors may prescribe higher doses for low levels, so it's important to follow their dosing advice. (For vegan vitamin D3 options, check my preferred brands at the bottom of the page.)
🍘 Iodine: Thyroid Support
Iodine is essential for thyroid function, which regulates metabolism. Deficiency during pregnancy and infancy can cause irreversible intellectual disability, while in adults, it may lead to hypothyroidism (1).
Vegans are at a higher risk of iodine deficiency, with studies showing up to 50% lower blood iodine levels than vegetarians (2). The recommended daily intake (RDA) for adults is 150 mcg, increasing to 220 mcg for pregnant women and 290 mcg for breastfeeding women (3).
While I previously recommended incorporating more seaweed into your daily diet as a natural source of iodine (4), growing data on microplastic contamination is making me lean more toward iodine supplementation. One study found that 93% of seaweed samples contained microplastics, with an average of 0.29 pieces per gram (5), while another study detected microplastics in 100% of tested seaweed samples (6). Additionally, research on kelp and nori in East Asia found widespread contamination with plastic microfibers (7).
To minimize exposure, it's best to choose high-quality, tested seaweed sources, but given the increasing concerns, a 150 mcg iodine supplement may be a more reliable option (8). If you do consume seaweed, avoid hijiki, which is high in arsenic (9), and limit kelp, which can contain excessive iodine levels (10). Ensuring adequate iodine intake is particularly important if your levels are low or if you consume large amounts of raw cruciferous vegetables, which can inhibit iodine absorption in the thyroid (11).
🦴 Calcium
While calcium is essential for bone health and various bodily functions, routine supplementation is not universally recommended due to potential health risks and the availability of dietary sources.
Cardiovascular Concerns: Some studies have suggested that calcium supplements may increase the risk of cardiovascular events, particularly myocardial infarction. A meta-analysis found that calcium supplements, with or without vitamin D, modestly increased the risk of cardiovascular events, especially heart attacks (1).
Kidney Stones: Excessive calcium intake from supplements has been associated with a higher risk of kidney stones. Research indicates that calcium supplements may contribute to the development of kidney stones, whereas calcium obtained from dietary sources does not carry the same risk (2).
Milk-Alkali Syndrome: Overconsumption of calcium supplements can lead to milk-alkali syndrome, a condition characterized by elevated blood calcium levels, metabolic alkalosis, and kidney impairment. This syndrome can result from excessive intake of calcium and absorbable alkali, often from supplements (3).
Fortified foods: Calcium supplements can increase the risk of heart disease due to the sudden spike in calcium levels (4). Fortified foods like plant-based milks and orange juice provide much lower amounts of calcium than supplements but are a safe option. However, the best way to get calcium is through leafy greens, which supply calcium and create an alkaline environment that supports bone health—making them even better than fortified foods. Plus, calcium-rich greens are also high in nitrates, which support heart health (5). While Swiss chard, beet greens, and spinach aren’t the best choices for calcium due to their high oxalate content, they can still be valuable additions to a healthy diet.
While calcium is essential (6), it's best to obtain it from nutrient-dense foods such as dark leafy greens, sesame seeds, and nuts. Tahini is also a great source. To meet your calcium needs, try incorporating several servings of dark leafy greens into your daily meals. However, be mindful of high-oxalate greens like spinach, chard, and beet greens. While highly nutritious (7), their high oxalate content can reduce calcium absorption (8).
The RDA for calcium is set at 1,000 mg per day for most adults and increases to 1,200 mg per day for adults over the age of 50 (9).
🥬 Iron
Iron is essential for DNA production, red blood cell formation, oxygen transport, and energy metabolism. A deficiency can lead to anemia, fatigue, and weakened immune function (1).
The RDA for iron is 8 mg for adult men and post-menopausal women, 18 mg for adult women, and 27 mg for pregnant women (2). Iron exists in two forms: heme (from animal products) and non-heme (from plants). Since non-heme iron is less easily absorbed, vegans are often advised to consume 1.8 times the standard RDA, though more research is needed to confirm this recommendation (3).
Vegans with low iron intake should focus on consuming more iron-rich foods like cruciferous vegetables, beans, peas, dried fruit, nuts, and seeds. Including iron-fortified options such as cereals, enriched breads, and certain plant milks can also be beneficial (4, 5).
Additionally, cooking with cast-iron cookware, avoiding tea or coffee with meals, and pairing iron-rich foods with a vitamin C source can enhance iron absorption. To boost iron absorption, pair iron-rich foods with vitamin C during meals or snacks (4). For example, enjoy pumpkin seeds with bell peppers, or pair your broccoli with a lemony dressing. Iron supplements should be a last resort, and it's crucial to consult a healthcare professional before use. Excessive iron, especially heme iron in animal foods, may increase the risk of colorectal cancer, heart disease, and other serious health issues (5, 6).
🐠 Omega-3 (EPA & DHA)
Omega-3 fatty acids are divided into two types:
- Essential omega-3s (ALA): Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) must be obtained from the diet.
- Long-chain omega-3s (EPA & DHA): Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can be synthesized from ALA but are not considered essential.
EPA and DHA play a key role in brain and eye health and may help reduce inflammation, depression, breast cancer risk, and ADHD (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). ALA-rich plant sources include flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts, hemp seeds, and soybeans, while EPA and DHA are primarily found in fatty fish and fish oil.
Though the body converts ALA into EPA and DHA, conversion rates are low (5–10% for EPA and 2–5% for DHA) (7, 8). Studies show that vegetarians and vegans have up to 50% lower blood and tissue levels of EPA and DHA than omnivores (9).
The VITAL study found that while omega-3 supplements didn’t reduce overall cardiovascular events, vegans might benefit, especially in lowering the risk of heart attacks (10). Experts recommend an Omega-3 index of 8-12% for good health (11). Since some people’s bodies don’t convert plant-based omega-3s (ALA) to EPA and DHA as well as others, testing your Omega-3 index can help you know how much you need. For vegans aiming for an 8% index, a daily dose of 1,000 to 1,500 mg of combined EPA and DHA, in a 50:50 ratio, is typically recommended. To absorb it best, take it with a meal, keep it in the fridge, and use it before it expires. Check your levels after four months to see if you’re on track. Be careful with omega-3 supplements if you have health conditions like bleeding problems or upcoming surgery, and always talk to your doctor first.
💪🏼 Creatine
Creatine is classified as a non-protein amino acid, meaning it is made from amino acids but is not directly involved in building proteins. Non-protein amino acids serve specialized functions outside of protein synthesis. Creatine fits into this category because its primary role is energy production, not forming structural proteins.
About 1 gram of creatine is synthesized daily in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas using three amino acids:
- Arginine
- Glycine
- Methionine (providing a methyl group)
The reaction forms creatine, which is transported to muscles and stored as phosphocreatine.
Key Functions of Creatine as a Non-Protein Amino Acid
- Energy Buffering: It helps rapidly regenerate ATP, the body's energy currency, during high-intensity activities.
- Brain and Cognitive Support: Creatine supports brain energy metabolism, helping maintain cognitive function during mental stress or fatigue.
- Cellular Hydration: It draws water into cells, promoting hydration and supporting metabolic reactions.
Supplementing with creatine monohydrate and engaging in resistance training improves strength, muscle mass, and body composition (1). The International Society of Sports Nutrition states, 'Creatine monohydrate is the most effective ergogenic nutritional supplement currently available to athletes in terms of increasing high-intensity exercise capacity and lean body mass during training' (2).
How Much Creatine?
How Much Creatine Monohydrate?
Creatine monohydrate supplementation is recommended for all dietary types, including vegans and vegetarians, who may have lower muscle creatine stores due to the absence of animal-based foods. Taking 3-5 grams daily helps ensure optimal creatine levels and supports muscle growth, strength, and exercise performance, regardless of diet.
If you have a history of falls or a family history of osteopenia or osteoporosis, consider 1.4 grams of protein per kilogram of body weight per day combined with resistance training to support bone strength and reduce future risks.
Some studies have used a creatine-loading phase for 5 to 7 days to rapidly saturate muscle stores, typically dosing 20 to 25 grams per day at the start. However, research suggests this step may not be necessary. If you choose to load, divide the 20 to 25 grams into 2 to 3 smaller servings to reduce the risk of stomach discomfort.
What to Expect When You Start Creatine
- Water Retention:
- Creatine draws water into muscle cells, causing an initial increase in water weight, often within the first week.
- This may make muscles look fuller and more toned due to better hydration inside the muscle tissue.
- Muscle Growth Mechanism (3, 4, 5, 6, 7):
- Improved Cell Signaling: Hydrated cells promote better anabolic (muscle-building) signaling.
- Protein Synthesis: Creatine supports muscle protein synthesis, enhancing recovery and growth over time.
Pro Tip: Creatine works best when taken daily, regardless of workout days. It can be mixed with water or a post-workout shake for maximum absorption. When choosing a creatine supplement, Creapure® and NSF Certified for Sport® brands are considered the best options due to their high-quality standards.
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🌰 Selenium
Selenium is an essential trace mineral that supports immune function, thyroid health, male fertility, and the production of endogenous antioxidants. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for adults is 55 micrograms (mcg) per day, with pregnant and lactating women requiring slightly more—60 mcg and 70 mcg per day, respectively (1).
Individuals following plant-based diets may have lower selenium intake, averaging between 40 to 50 mcg daily, due to the varying selenium content in plant foods influenced by soil quality (2). A daily supplement of 50 to 70 mcg can help meet the RDA without exceeding safe limits. However, finding a 50 mcg supplement can be challenging; therefore, taking a 100 mcg supplement every other day is a practical alternative. While Brazil nuts are known for their high selenium content, the amount can vary significantly, ranging from 2.07 mg/kg to 68.15 mg/kg, depending on the soil in which they are grown (3). This variability makes them an unreliable source of selenium.
It's important to note that excessive selenium intake can lead to toxicity. The tolerable upper intake level (UL) for selenium is set at 400 mcg per day for adults (4). Regularly consuming amounts close to or above this threshold may result in adverse effects such as gastrointestinal disturbances, hair loss, fatigue, and, in severe cases, neurological damage (5). Therefore, while ensuring adequate selenium intake is essential, it is equally important to avoid excessive consumption.
🌾 Zinc
Zinc is a vital mineral for metabolism, immune function, and cellular repair. Insufficient zinc intake can lead to issues such as hair loss, diarrhea, and delayed wound healing (1, 2, 3).
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for zinc varies by age and physiological status (4):
- Adult men: 11 mg per day
- Adult women: 8 mg per day
- Pregnant women: 11 mg per day
- Lactating women: 12 mg per day
Plant-based sources rich in zinc include legumes, nuts, whole grains, seeds, tofu, tempeh, and fortified breakfast cereals. While these foods contain phytates—compounds that can bind zinc and inhibit its absorption—a well-balanced diet with a variety of these foods typically provides sufficient zinc for most individuals (5). However, vegans and vegetarians are encouraged to aim for 1.5 times the RDA (6).
Excessive zinc intake can interfere with the absorption of essential minerals such as iron and copper (7). High doses of zinc may lead to nausea and vomiting. Therefore, routine zinc supplementation is not necessary for everyone. It is generally advised to avoid zinc supplementation unless a deficiency is confirmed or dietary intake is insufficient (8).
🄺 The Controversy Around Vitamin K Supplements
Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting and has been studied for potential roles in bone and cardiovascular health (1). However, the efficacy of vitamin K supplementation in these areas remains uncertain (2).
Conflicting Research on Bone and Heart Health
Studies on vitamin K and osteoporosis have produced inconsistent and unreliable results. Some major trials were later found to contain fabricated data, and when fraudulent studies are removed (3), systematic reviews conclude that vitamin K supplementation does not improve bone mineral density or reduce fracture risk (4). Similarly, while vitamin K is involved in calcium regulation in the arteries, clinical trials have failed to show that supplementation prevents arterial calcification, atherosclerosis, or heart disease (5).
Why Food Sources Matter More
While those with higher vitamin K levels in their bloodstream tend to have lower inflammation, this is largely because they consume more leafy greens and fewer animal products—not because they take supplements (6). In fact, just two leaves of kale provide over 70 micrograms of vitamin K, meeting daily requirements.
Do We Need Vitamin K2?
Vitamin K1, found in plants, is the primary dietary form. Some claim that vitamin K2, found in animal products and fermented foods, is essential, but research shows that the human body converts vitamin K1 from greens into the necessary forms of K2 (7). This means there’s no established need to supplement with K2, especially when trials using it for bone and heart health have largely failed (8).
Potential Risks of Supplementation
Beyond the lack of proven benefits, vitamin K supplements have faced contamination and mislabeling issues, raising concerns about quality control. Additionally, one study on diabetes patients found that vitamin K2 supplements were associated with an increase in arterial calcification rather than a reduction (9).
Bottom Line: Eat Your Greens
Rather than relying on supplements, the best approach is to consume vitamin K naturally from leafy greens, which not only provide vitamin K1 but also deliver additional bone-supporting nutrients like calcium and magnesium. Green vegetables are consistently linked to better overall health, lower inflammation, and even a longer lifespan.
💭 Final Thoughts on Essential Supplements for a Vegan Diet
A well-planned vegan diet can provide many essential nutrients, but certain supplements help fill common gaps. Vitamin B12, vitamin D, omega-3s, iron, zinc, iodine, and calcium are key considerations to support long-term health. While whole foods should be the foundation, targeted supplementation ensures you meet your needs without deficiencies. Regular blood tests and a balanced approach will help you stay healthy and thrive on a plant-based diet.
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📋 References
Vitamin B12
Pawlak, R., Parrott, S. J., Raj, S., Cullum-Dugan, D., & Lucus, D. (2013). How prevalent is vitamin B(12) deficiency among vegetarians?. Nutrition reviews, 71(2), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1111/nure.12001
Smith, A. D., Warren, M. J., & Refsum, H. (2018). Vitamin B12. Advances in food and nutrition research, 83, 215–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.afnr.2017.11.005
Reynolds E. Vitamin B12, folic acid, and the nervous system. Lancet Neurol. 2006 Nov;5(11):949-60. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70598-1. PMID: 17052662. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17052662/
Watanabe F. Vitamin B12 sources and bioavailability. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2007 Nov;232(10):1266-74. doi: 10.3181/0703-MR-67. PMID: 17959839. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17959839/
Willet, W. C., Skerrett, P. J., & Giovannucci, E. (2014). Diet, nutrition, and cancer: A review and future directions. BMJ, 349, g5226. https://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g5226
Bor, M. V., von Castel-Roberts, K. M., Kauwell, G. P., Stabler, S. P., Allen, R. H., Maneval, D. R., Bailey, L. B., & Nexo, E. (2010). Daily intake of 4 to 7 microg dietary vitamin B-12 is associated with steady concentrations of vitamin B-12-related biomarkers in a healthy young population. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 91(3), 571–577. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28082
Darby, W. J., Bridgforth, E. B., Le Brocquy, J., Clark, S. L. Jr., De Oliveira, J. D., Kevany, J., McGanity, W. J., & Perez, C. (1958). Vitamin B12 requirement of adult man. The American journal of medicine, 25(5), 726–732. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(58)90010-x
Ströhle, A., Richter, M., González-Gross, M., Neuhäuser-Berthold, M., Wagner, K. H., Leschik-Bonnet, E., Egert, S., & German Nutrition Society (DGE) (2019). The Revised D-A-CH-Reference Values for the Intake of Vitamin B12 : Prevention of Deficiency and Beyond. Molecular nutrition & food research, 63(6), e1801178. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201801178
Kondo, H., Binder, M. J., Kolhouse, J. F., Smythe, W. R., Podell, E. R., & Allen, R. H. (1982). Presence and formation of cobalamin analogues in multivitamin-mineral pills. The Journal of clinical investigation, 70(4), 889–898. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci110685
Hannibal, L., Lysne, V., Bjørke-Monsen, A. L., Behringer, S., Grünert, S. C., Spiekerkoetter, U., Jacobsen, D. W., & Blom, H. J. (2016). Biomarkers and Algorithms for the Diagnosis of Vitamin B12 Deficiency. Frontiers in molecular biosciences, 3, 27. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2016.00027
Vitamin D
DeLuca HF. The control of calcium and phosphorus metabolism by the vitamin D endocrine system. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1980;355:1-17. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1980.tb21323.x. PMID: 7015957. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7015957/
Lappe JM. The Role of Vitamin D in Human Health: A Paradigm Shift. Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine. 2011;16(1):58-72. doi:10.1177/1533210110392952
Holick MF, Chen TC. Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Apr;87(4):1080S-6S. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/87.4.1080S. PMID: 18400738. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1533210110392952
Marie B Demay, Anastassios G Pittas, Daniel D Bikle, Dima L Diab, Mairead E Kiely, Marise Lazaretti-Castro, Paul Lips, Deborah M Mitchell, M Hassan Murad, Shelley Powers, Sudhaker D Rao, Robert Scragg, John A Tayek, Amy M Valent, Judith M E Walsh, Christopher R McCartney, Vitamin D for the Prevention of Disease: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, Volume 109, Issue 8, August 2024, Pages 1907–1947, https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgae290
Shaffer JA, Edmondson D, Wasson LT, Falzon L, Homma K, Ezeokoli N, Li P, Davidson KW. Vitamin D supplementation for depressive symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Psychosom Med. 2014 Apr;76(3):190-6. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0000000000000044. PMID: 24632894; PMCID: PMC4008710. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24632894/
National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements. (2023). Vitamin D - Health Professional Fact Sheet. Retrieved from https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. (n.d.). Vitamin D. The Nutrition Source. Retrieved from https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/vitamin-d/
Yang, T., Wang, H., Xiong, Y., Chen, C., Duan, K., Jia, J., & Ma, F. (2020). Vitamin D Supplementation Improves Cognitive Function Through Reducing Oxidative Stress Regulated by Telomere Length in Older Adults with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A 12-Month Randomized Controlled Trial. Journal of Alzheimer's disease : JAD, 78(4), 1509–1518. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-200926
Iodine
Zimmermann MB, Boelaert K. Iodine deficiency and thyroid disorders. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015 Apr;3(4):286-95. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(14)70225-6. Epub 2015 Jan 13. PMID: 25591468. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25591468/
Leung AM, Lamar A, He X, Braverman LE, Pearce EN. Iodine status and thyroid function of Boston-area vegetarians and vegans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Aug;96(8):E1303-7. doi: 10.1210/jc.2011-0256. Epub 2011 May 25. PMID: 21613354; PMCID: PMC3206519. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21613354/
Office of Dietary Supplements. (2022). Iodine: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved from https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iodine-HealthProfessional/
Teas, J., Pino, S., Critchley, A., & Braverman, L. E. (2004). Variability of iodine content in common commercially available edible seaweeds. Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association, 14(10), 836–841. https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2004.14.836
Werorilangi, S., Hovey, R., Umar, W., Hasyim, H., Harusi, N. M. R., Dexter, K. F., Langford, A., Ruhon, R., & Walyandra, Z. Z. (2023). End-of-life of plastics used in seaweed aquaculture in South Sulawesi. The Australia-Indonesia Centre. https://pair.australiaindonesiacentre.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/PAIR_End-of-life-of-plastics-used-in-seaweed-aquaculture-in-South-Sulawesi.pdf
Kutralam-Muniasamy, G., Shruti, V., & Pérez-Guevara, F. (2024). Microplastic contamination in commercially packaged edible seaweeds and exposure of the ethnic minority and local population in Mexico. Food Research International, 176, 113840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113840
Xiao X, Liu S, Li L, Li R, Zhao X, Yin N, She X, Peijnenburg W, Cui X, Luo Y. Seaweeds as a major source of dietary microplastics exposure in East Asia. Food Chem. 2024 Aug 30;450:139317. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139317. Epub 2024 Apr 10. PMID: 38636378. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38636378/
Yokoi, K., & Konomi, A. (2012). Toxicity of so-called edible hijiki seaweed (Sargassum fusiforme) containing inorganic arsenic. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 50(7), 2291-2297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2012.04.029
Aakre, I., Solli, D. D., Markhus, M. W., Mæhre, H. K., Dahl, L., Henjum, S., Alexander, J., Korneliussen, P. A., Madsen, L., & Kjellevold, M. (2021). Commercially available kelp and seaweed products - valuable iodine source or risk of excess intake?. Food & nutrition research, 65, 10.29219/fnr.v65.7584. https://doi.org/10.29219/fnr.v65.7584
Leung, A. M., Lamar, A., He, X., Braverman, L. E., & Pearce, E. N. (2011). Iodine status and thyroid function of Boston-area vegetarians and vegans. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 96(8), E1303–E1307. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-0256
Paśko, P., Okoń, K., Krośniak, M., Prochownik, E., Żmudzki, P., Kryczyk-Kozioł, J., & Zagrodzki, P. (2018). Interaction between iodine and glucosinolates in rutabaga sprouts and selected biomarkers of thyroid function in male rats. Journal of trace elements in medicine and biology : organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements (GMS), 46, 110–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2017.12.002
Calcium
Bolland, M. J., Avenell, A., Baron, J. A., Grey, A., MacLennan, G. S., Gamble, G. D., & Reid, I. R. (2011). Effect of calcium supplements on risk of myocardial infarction and cardiovascular events: Meta-analysis. BMJ, 342, d2040. https://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.d2040
Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Calcium supplements: Should you take them? Retrieved from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/calcium-supplements-should-you-take-them
Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Milk-alkali syndrome. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk-alkali_syndrome
Bolland, M. J., Grey, A., & Reid, I. R. (2021). Calcium supplements and cardiovascular risk: 5 years on. Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety, 12, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042098621991270
López-González, B., Becerra-Tomás, N., Babio, N., & Salas-Salvadó, J. (2021). Dairy products, calcium, and plant-based alternatives and cardiometabolic diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Advances in Nutrition, 12(5), 1685–1699. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmab065
Appleby, P., Roddam, A., Allen, N., & Key, T. (2007). Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford. European journal of clinical nutrition, 61(12), 1400–1406. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659
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Heaney, R. P., & Weaver, C. M. (1989). Oxalate: effect on calcium absorbability. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 50(4), 830–832. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/50.4.830
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Iron
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Craig WJ, Mangels AR; American Dietetic Association. Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009 Jul;109(7):1266-82. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027. PMID: 19562864. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19562864/
Craig WJ. Health effects of vegan diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 May;89(5):1627S-1633S. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736N. Epub 2009 Mar 11. PMID: 19279075. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19279075/
Lynch, S. R., & Cook, J. D. (1980). Interaction of vitamin C and iron. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 355, 32–44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1980.tb21325.x
Sharp P. A. (2010). Intestinal iron absorption: regulation by dietary & systemic factors. International journal for vitamin and nutrition research. Internationale Zeitschrift fur Vitamin- und Ernahrungsforschung. Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition, 80 (4-5), 231–242. https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831/a000029
West, A. R., & Oates, P. S. (2008). Mechanisms of heme iron absorption: Current questions and controversies. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 14(26), 4101–4110. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.14.4101
Geissler, C., & Singh, M. (2011). Iron, meat and health. Nutrients, 3(3), 283-316. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu3030283
Omega 3s
Guesnet P, Alessandri JM. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and the developing central nervous system (CNS) - Implications for dietary recommendations. Biochimie. 2011 Jan;93(1):7-12. doi: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.05.005. Epub 2010 May 15. PMID: 20478353. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20478353/
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Greenberg JA, Bell SJ, Ausdal WV. Omega-3 Fatty Acid supplementation during pregnancy. Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2008 Fall;1(4):162-9. PMID: 19173020; PMCID: PMC2621042. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2621042/
Martins JG. EPA but not DHA appears to be responsible for the efficacy of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in depression: evidence from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Am Coll Nutr. 2009 Oct;28(5):525-42. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2009.10719785. PMID: 20439549. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20439549/
Zheng JS, Hu XJ, Zhao YM, Yang J, Li D. Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of breast cancer: meta-analysis of data from 21 independent prospective cohort studies. BMJ. 2013 Jun 27;346:f3706. doi: 10.1136/bmj.f3706. PMID: 23814120. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23814120/
Swanson, D., Block, R., & Mousa, S. A. (2012). Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA: health benefits throughout life. Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.), 3(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.111.000893
Davis BC, Kris-Etherton PM. Achieving optimal essential fatty acid status in vegetarians: current knowledge and practical implications. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 Sep;78(3 Suppl):640S-646S. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/78.3.640S. PMID: 12936959. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12936959/
Sanders TA. DHA status of vegetarians. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2009 Aug-Sep;81(2-3):137-41. doi: 10.1016/j.plefa.2009.05.013. Epub 2009 Jun 4. PMID: 19500961. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19500961/
Saunders AV, Davis BC, Garg ML. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vegetarian diets. Med J Aust. 2013 Aug 19;199(S4):S22-6. doi: 10.5694/mja11.11507. PMID: 25369925. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25369925/
Manson, J. E., Cook, N. R., Lee, I. M., Christen, W., Bassuk, S. S., Mora, S., ... & Buring, J. E. (2019). Marine n–3 Fatty Acids and Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 380(1), 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1811403
Harris, W. S., & Von Schacky, C. (2004). The Omega-3 Index: a new risk factor for death from coronary heart disease?. Preventive medicine, 39(1), 212–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.02.030
Creatine
Stares, A., & Bains, M. (2020). The Additive Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Exercise Training in an Aging Population: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Journal of geriatric physical therapy (2001), 43(2), 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1519/JPT.0000000000000222
Candow, D. G., Forbes, S. C., Chilibeck, P. D., Cornish, S. M., Antonio, J., & Kreider, R. B. (2019). Effectiveness of Creatine Supplementation on Aging Muscle and Bone: Focus on Falls Prevention and Inflammation. Journal of clinical medicine, 8(4), 488. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8040488
Syrotuik, Daniel G.; Bell, Gordon J.; Burnham, Robert; Sim, Lorraine L.; Calvert, Robert A.; MacLean, Ian M. Absolute and Relative Strength Performance Following Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation Combined With Periodized Resistance Training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 14(2):p 182-190, May 2000. https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/abstract/2000/05000/absolute_and_relative_strength_performance.11.aspx
Beaudart, C., Dawson, A., Shaw, S. C., Harvey, N. C., Kanis, J. A., Binkley, N., Reginster, J. Y., Chapurlat, R., Chan, D. C., Bruyère, O., Rizzoli, R., Cooper, C., Dennison, E. M., & IOF-ESCEO Sarcopenia Working Group (2017). Nutrition and physical activity in the prevention and treatment of sarcopenia: systematic review. Osteoporosis international : a journal established as result of cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA, 28(6), 1817–1833. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-017-3980-9
Dolan, E., Artioli, G. G., Pereira, R. M. R., & Gualano, B. (2019). Muscular Atrophy and Sarcopenia in the Elderly: Is There a Role for Creatine Supplementation?. Biomolecules, 9(11), 642. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom9110642
Ribeiro, F., Longobardi, I., Perim, P., Duarte, B., Ferreira, P., Gualano, B., Roschel, H., & Saunders, B. (2021). Timing of Creatine Supplementation around Exercise: A Real Concern?. Nutrients, 13(8), 2844. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082844
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). (2004). Opinion of the Scientific Panel on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food (AFC) on a request from the Commission related to creatine monohydrate for use in foods for particular nutritional uses. EFSA Journal, 36, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2004.36
Selenium
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Klein L, Dawczynski C, Schwarz M, Maares M, Kipp K, Haase H, Kipp AP. Selenium, Zinc, and Copper Status of Vegetarians and Vegans in Comparison to Omnivores in the Nutritional Evaluation (NuEva) Study. Nutrients. 2023 Aug 11;15(16):3538. doi: 10.3390/nu15163538. PMID: 37630729; PMCID: PMC10459941. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10459941/
Silva Junior, F. M. R., Guimarães, G. A., Silva, A. P. S., Silva, G. R., Souza, A. P. S., da Silva, G. L., & Korn, M. G. A. (2017). Selenium in Brazil nuts: An analysis of composition variability in different production regions. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 64, 147–151. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28923728/
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MacFarquhar, J. K., Broussard, D. L., Melstrom, P., Hutchinson, R., Wolkin, A., Martin, C., Burk, R. F., Dunn, J. R., Green, A. L., Hammond, R., Schaffner, W., & Jones, T. F. (2010). Acute selenium toxicity associated with a dietary supplement. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(3), 256-261. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3225252/
Zinc
Prasad, A. S. (2013). Discovery of human zinc deficiency: Its impact on human health and disease. Advances in Nutrition, 4(2), 176-190. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3724376/
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Vitamin K
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Kelly Gravina says
Is there a printable version of this please:)
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
I will have one soon!
Valerie says
I'd like to suggest adding choline to the list. My memory was getting worse and worse, and I tried everything! Finally I realized that my diet had very little choline in it, and it's a more newly-discovered nutrient, so it's not in my multivitamins. I'm now taking phosphatidyl-choline supplements, and my memory is working again!!! The change was dramatic. Definitely worth reading about -- it was life-changing for me.
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
I am glad to hear you are feeling better! Have you read this article? https://www.pcrm.org/news/blog/clearing-choline-confusion
Chris says
Hi Nisha, thank you for this great info on supplementing when on an vegan/plant based diet, SO detailed!
A question, it seems so many of the foods that are rich in calcium, that I’ve been compiling a list of, are also high in Oxalates, such as Soya (so Tofu?) White beans, some Greens, Beets, Dates.
If I’m understanding this correctly, that this means there’s a reduction in available Calcium because of this, are there other foods to include when eating these that can reduce the oxalate effect on calcium?
Or, hopefully, I’m just completely off on the whole Calcium, Oxalate thing 🙂
Thank you Nisha
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Hi. I am in the process of writing a complete guide on calcium on a plant-based diet. Stay tuned!
Dilushani says
Hi Nisha, I wasn't able to see the info regarding "always taking B12 alone and not part of a multivitamin". I clicked on the reference but didn't see that point being made. Could you please clarify? Thank you
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Hi, The study linked there explains about Bioavailability. The link works. I am not sure what you mean.
Catherine says
I also saw "always take B12 alone and not part of a multivitamin" but I can't find where it says that now. I specifically did not get a B Complex multivitamin because of that.
Nisha, would you confirm that is the correct way to take B12? Alone on an empty stomach? In your buying list I saw B12 1000mcg nuggets, so I plan on taking that 2x a week for a total of 2000mcg per week.
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Yes alone, sublingual!
Heather Taylor says
This is a great article, thank you for posting.
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Thank you for taking the time to read it and comment. I appreciate it!
Linda says
Thanks for your time and research in producing the guide, Essential Supplements for a Vegan Diet. Needed. I also ordered your cookbook and so look forward to having it in my hands. A 'well planned vegan diet' is what I'm establishing for myself ~ with your help. Thank you.
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Thank you so much for taking the time to read it. I hope this helps you on your journey! Thank you for purchasing my book!
Thea McFarlane says
✨️ thankyou Nisha 💚 This article is excellent 👏 🌟🤗🙌❣️ I am subscribed to your youtube 😀 I live in Queensland Australia 🌏🌊💚 I will share it to other folk 🤗🙌❣️ Much Love to You & All Other Good Folk 💚💚💚✨️
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Hi! Thank you so much for your comment. I truly appreciate the feedback. Thank you for sharing it.