A Registered Dietitian's Guide to Essential Supplements for a Vegan & Vegetarian Diet is a research-backed approach to thriving on a plant-based lifestyle. A well-planned vegan or vegetarian diet provides most nutrients, but a few key supplements can help fill in the gaps where optimal amounts are harder to achieve from food alone. Modern nutrition should focus on optimizing health, not merely preventing deficiency.
Always consult a healthcare provider before starting any new supplement regimen, especially if you have existing health conditions or concerns.
This blog post was inspired by my Strong Bone Foods Guide, Menopause Diet Guide, and my Vegan Food List for Beginners. Visit my nutrition articles here.
Jump to:
- 💊 Vitamin B12: The Non-Negotiable
- ☀️ Vitamin D: The Sunshine Vitamin
- 🍘 Iodine: Thyroid Support
- 🦴 Calcium
- 🥬 Iron
- 🐠 Omega-3 (EPA & DHA)
- 💪🏼 Creatine
- 🌰 Selenium
- 🌾 Zinc
- 🄺 The Controversy Around Vitamin K Supplements
- 🌱 Magnesium: The Overlooked Mineral
- 💭 Final Thoughts on Essential Supplements for a Vegan Diet
- 🟡 Shop Supplements
- 🏋🏽 35 % off Cleanest Creatine
- 🗒️ FREE Supplement PDFs
- 📰 Related Articles
- 👩🏽🍳 Enjoyed this article?
- 📋 References
- 💬 Comments
💊 Vitamin B12: The Non-Negotiable
Vitamin B12 supplementation is crucial for all vegans and also important for vegetarians, who often have low levels. Studies show that while anyone can have low vitamin B12 levels, vegetarians and vegans are at higher risk, especially those who do not take supplements (1,2). Vitamin B12 is essential for protein metabolism, red blood cell formation, and nervous system health (3). A deficiency can lead to anemia, nervous system damage, infertility, and an increased risk of bone and heart disease (4, 5).
Aim for 2,000 mcg of cyanocobalamin (the most stable and well-tested form) once a week, ideally taken as a chewable, sublingual, or liquid supplement on an empty stomach for optimal absorption (6). Alternatively, you can take 50 mcg of cyanocobalamin daily. If you prefer to meet your B12 needs through fortified foods, include them at each meal, with each serving providing at least 190% of the Daily Value (around 4.5 mcg per serving).
If you're over 65, consider taking 1,000 mcg of cyanocobalamin daily (7). Always take a separate B12 supplement, not as part of a multivitamin (8).
If you're experiencing or suspecting deficiency symptoms, the most reliable test to request is a urine MMA (methylmalonic acid) test, rather than a serum B12 level test (9). Many doctors mistakenly rely on serum B12 levels, which can miss a severe functional deficiency. Normal blood B12 levels don't always reflect the true B12 status in your cells (10).
See below for brands I recommend.
☀️ Vitamin D: The Sunshine Vitamin
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that supports the absorption of calcium and phosphorus, thereby aiding bone health (1). It also plays a role in immune function, mood regulation, memory, and muscle recovery (2, 3, 4). Few foods naturally contain vitamin D, and while some are fortified, it's challenging to get enough through food alone (5). For many, taking a supplement is the best way to meet their vitamin D needs.
Challenges to the Current RDAs
Several experts argue that current vitamin D recommendations are set too low for optimal health. The RDAs (600 IU (15 µg) per day) were based primarily on calcium balance, not vitamin D's broader roles in immunity, metabolic health, cardiovascular function, and disease prevention. While supplementation remains debated, evidence from large trials suggests that daily intake of 2,000 IU (50 mcg) safely prevents and treats deficiency, even in those with adequate baseline levels (6).
What's the Optimal Vitamin D Level?
Experts don't fully agree on the 'perfect' serum 25(OH)D level, but most research points to a healthy sweet spot. Based on large reviews, 40 to 50 ng/mL (100-125 nmol/L) appears to offer the greatest health benefits with the lowest risks (7, 8, 9). Levels consistently below this range are linked to higher risks of chronic conditions, while levels well above 60 ng/mL may raise concerns such as calcium imbalance or kidney stress (10).
Supplementation to Meet Optimal Serum Vitamin D
To help you reach and maintain those optimal levels safely, here are some practical vitamin D dosing tips:
- Optimal serum 25(OH)D: 40 to 50 ng/mL (100-125 nmol/L).
- Safety: Adverse effects may appear above 50 ng/mL; toxicity risk increases above 100 ng/mL.
- Supplementation: 2,000 IU/day often maintains healthy levels; up to 5,000 IU/day may be needed in some cases. Daily dosing is more effective than intermittent.
- Note: Always confirm with blood testing and follow medical guidance, especially if taking higher doses. Dosing should be based on serum levels.
While most D3 supplements come from lanolin, vegan options from lichen are available. Doctors may prescribe higher doses for low levels, so it's important to follow their dosing advice.
☀️ My Vegan Vitamin D3
2,000 IU vegan-friendly, NSF Certified®. Get 35% off my go-to brand for purity. DO NOT ENTER EMAIL in pop-up, proceed to ordering your product for best discount.
🍘 Iodine: Thyroid Support
Iodine is essential for thyroid function, which regulates metabolism. Deficiency during pregnancy and infancy can cause irreversible intellectual disability, while in adults, it may lead to hypothyroidism (1).
Vegans are at a higher risk of iodine deficiency, with studies showing up to 50% lower blood iodine levels than vegetarians (2). The recommended daily intake (RDA) for adults is 150 mcg, increasing to 220 mcg for pregnant women and 290 mcg for breastfeeding women (3).
While I previously recommended incorporating more seaweed into your daily diet as a natural source of iodine (4), growing data on microplastic contamination is making me lean more toward iodine supplementation. One study found that 93% of seaweed samples contained microplastics, with an average of 0.29 pieces per gram (5), while another study detected microplastics in 100% of tested seaweed samples (6). Additionally, research on kelp and nori in East Asia found widespread contamination with plastic microfibers (7).
To minimize exposure, it's best to choose high-quality, tested seaweed sources, but given the increasing concerns, a 150 mcg iodine supplement may be a more reliable option (8). If you do consume seaweed, avoid hijiki, which is high in arsenic (9), and limit kelp, which can contain excessive iodine levels (10). Ensuring adequate iodine intake is particularly important if your levels are low or if you consume large amounts of raw cruciferous vegetables, which can inhibit iodine absorption in the thyroid (11).
See below for brands I recommend.
🦴 Calcium
While calcium is essential for bone health and various bodily functions, routine supplementation is not universally recommended due to potential health risks and the availability of dietary sources.
Concerns with Supplementation
Cardiovascular Concerns: Some studies have suggested that calcium supplements may increase the risk of cardiovascular events, particularly myocardial infarction. A meta-analysis found that calcium supplements, with or without vitamin D, modestly increased the risk of cardiovascular events, especially heart attacks (1).
Kidney Stones: Excessive calcium intake from supplements has been associated with a higher risk of kidney stones. Research suggests that calcium supplements may increase the risk of developing kidney stones, whereas calcium obtained from dietary sources does not carry the same risk (2).
Milk-Alkali Syndrome: Overconsumption of calcium supplements can lead to milk-alkali syndrome, a condition characterized by elevated blood calcium levels, metabolic alkalosis, and kidney impairment. This syndrome can result from excessive intake of calcium and absorbable alkali, often from supplements (3).
Fortified foods: Calcium supplements can increase the risk of heart disease due to the sudden spike in calcium levels (4). Fortified foods like plant-based milks and orange juice provide much lower amounts of calcium than supplements, but are a safe option. However, the best way to get calcium is through leafy greens, which supply calcium and create an alkaline environment that supports bone health, making them even better than fortified foods. Plus, calcium-rich greens are also high in nitrates, which support heart health (5). While Swiss chard, beet greens, and spinach aren't the best choices for calcium due to their high oxalate content, they can still be valuable additions to a healthy diet.
While calcium is essential (6), it's best to obtain it from nutrient-dense foods such as dark leafy greens, sesame seeds, and nuts. Tahini is also a great source. To meet your calcium needs, try incorporating several servings of dark leafy greens into your daily meals. However, be mindful of high-oxalate greens like spinach, chard, and beet greens. While highly nutritious (7), their high oxalate content can reduce calcium absorption (8).
If you do take a supplement, how you take it matters. Experts often recommend chewing a calcium supplement and taking it with a meal, which enhances absorption and lowers the chance of digestive issues. Calcium carbonate, in particular, is absorbed best in the presence of stomach acid produced during eating (9).
Recommended Calcium Intake
The RDA for calcium ranges from 1,000 to 1,200 mg for adults (age and gender dependent) (10). However, when it comes to calcium and bone health, recommendations have been shifting. Harvard's Walter Willett has argued that U.S. guidelines may actually encourage people to consume too much calcium, suggesting that around 500-700 mg per day (from diet, and supplements if needed) is likely sufficient for most adults (11).
Plant-Based Diet Quality Matters for Bone Health
A recent study of more than 70,000 postmenopausal women found that long-term adherence to a plant-based diet wasn't associated with higher hip fracture risk (12). But when researchers looked at recent dietary patterns, the quality of the plant diet made a big difference. Women eating a healthful plant-based diet (rich in vegetables, whole grains, legumes, and nuts) had a 21% lower risk of hip fracture, while those following a diet high in refined grains and processed plant foods had a 28% higher risk. Takeaway: It's not just about eating plant-based foods, but about the quality of those plant foods.
🥬 Iron
Iron is essential for DNA production, red blood cell formation, oxygen transport, and energy metabolism. A deficiency can lead to anemia, fatigue, and weakened immune function (1).
The RDA for iron is 8 mg for adult men and post-menopausal women, 18 mg for adult women, and 27 mg for pregnant women (2). Iron exists in two forms: heme (from animal products) and non-heme (from plants). Since non-heme iron is less easily absorbed, vegans are often advised to consume 1.8 times the standard RDA, though more research is needed to confirm this recommendation (3).
Vegans with low iron intake should focus on consuming more iron-rich foods like cruciferous vegetables, beans, peas, dried fruit, nuts, and seeds. Including iron-fortified options such as cereals, enriched breads, and certain plant milks can also be beneficial (4, 5).
Additionally, cooking with cast-iron cookware, avoiding tea or coffee with meals, and pairing iron-rich foods with a vitamin C source can enhance iron absorption. To boost iron absorption, pair iron-rich foods with vitamin C during meals or snacks (4). For example, enjoy pumpkin seeds with bell peppers, or pair your broccoli with a lemony dressing. Iron supplements should be a last resort, and it's crucial to consult a healthcare professional before use. Excessive iron, especially heme iron in animal foods, may increase the risk of colorectal cancer, heart disease, and other serious health issues (5, 6).
🐠 Omega-3 (EPA & DHA)
FREE Omega-3s PDF
Omega-3 fatty acids are divided into two types:
- Essential omega-3s (ALA): Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) must be obtained from the diet.
- Long-chain omega-3s (EPA & DHA): Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can be synthesized from ALA but are not considered essential.
EPA and DHA play a key role in brain and eye health and may help reduce inflammation, depression, breast cancer risk, and ADHD (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6). ALA-rich plant sources include flaxseeds, chia seeds, walnuts, hemp seeds, and soybeans, while EPA and DHA are primarily found in fatty fish and fish oil.
Though the body converts ALA into EPA and DHA, conversion rates are low (5-10% for EPA and 2-5% for DHA) (7, 8). Studies show that vegetarians and vegans have up to 50% lower blood and tissue levels of EPA and DHA than omnivores (9).
The VITAL study found that while omega-3 supplements didn't reduce overall cardiovascular events, vegans might benefit, especially in lowering the risk of heart attacks (10). Experts recommend an Omega-3 index of 8-12% for good health (11). Since some people's bodies don't convert plant-based omega-3s (ALA) to EPA and DHA as well as others, testing your Omega-3 index can help you know how much you need. For vegans aiming for an 8% index, a daily dose of 1,000 to 1,500 mg of combined EPA and DHA, in a 50:50 ratio, is typically recommended. To absorb it best, take a triglyceride form with a meal, keep it in the fridge, and use it before it expires. Check your levels after four months to see if you're on track. Be careful with omega-3 supplements if you have health conditions like bleeding problems or upcoming surgery, and always talk to your doctor first.
🪸 My Vegan Omega-3s
Highly absorbable triglyceride form and NSF Certified®. Get 35% off my go-to brand for purity. DO NOT ENTER EMAIL in pop-up, proceed to ordering your product for best discount.
💪🏼 Creatine
FREE Creatine Dos & Don'ts PDF
What is Creatine?
Creatine is classified as a non-protein amino acid, meaning it is made from amino acids but is not directly involved in building proteins. Non-protein amino acids serve specialized functions outside of protein synthesis. Creatine fits into this category because its primary role is energy production, not forming structural proteins.
About 1 gram of creatine is synthesized daily in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas using three amino acids:
- Arginine
- Glycine
- Methionine (providing a methyl group)
The reaction forms creatine, which is transported to muscles and stored as phosphocreatine.
Key Functions of Creatine as a Non-Protein Amino Acid
- Energy Buffering: It helps rapidly regenerate ATP, the body's energy currency, during high-intensity activities.
- Brain and Cognitive Support: Creatine supports brain energy metabolism, helping maintain cognitive function during mental stress or fatigue.
- Cellular Hydration: It draws water into cells, promoting hydration and supporting metabolic reactions.
Supplementing with creatine monohydrate and engaging in resistance training improves strength, muscle mass, body composition, and potentially bone mass density (1, 2).
How Much Creatine?
How Much Creatine Monohydrate?
Creatine monohydrate supplementation is recommended for all dietary types, including vegans and vegetarians, who may have lower muscle creatine stores due to the absence of animal-based foods. Taking 3-5 grams daily helps ensure optimal creatine levels and supports muscle growth, strength, and exercise performance, regardless of diet.
If you have a history of falls or a family history of osteopenia or osteoporosis, consider 1.4 grams of protein per kilogram of ideal body weight per day combined with resistance training to support bone strength and reduce future risks.
Some studies have used a creatine-loading phase for 5 to 7 days to rapidly saturate muscle stores, typically dosing 20 to 25 grams per day at the start. However, research suggests this step may not be necessary. If you choose to load, divide the 20 to 25 grams into 2 to 3 smaller servings to reduce the risk of stomach discomfort.
What to Expect When You Start Creatine
- Water Retention:
- Creatine draws water into muscle cells, causing an initial increase in water weight, often within the first week.
- This may make muscles look fuller and more toned due to better hydration inside the muscle tissue.
- Muscle Growth Mechanism (3, 4, 5, 6, 7):
- Improved Cell Signaling: Hydrated cells promote better anabolic (muscle-building) signaling.
- Protein Synthesis: Creatine supports muscle protein synthesis, enhancing recovery and growth over time.
Pro Tip: Creatine works best when taken daily, regardless of workout days. Mix it with water only to reduce bloating. When choosing a creatine supplement, Creapure® and NSF Certified for Sport® brands are considered the best options due to their high-quality standards.
🏋🏽 My Creatine
Creapure® and NSF Certified for Sport®. Highest quality standards. Get 35% off my go-to brand for purity and performance. DO NOT ENTER EMAIL in pop-up, proceed to ordering your product for best discount.
🌰 Selenium
Selenium is an essential trace mineral that supports immune function, thyroid health, male fertility, and the production of endogenous antioxidants. The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for adults is 55 micrograms (mcg) per day, with pregnant and lactating women requiring slightly more-60 mcg and 70 mcg per day, respectively (1).
Individuals following plant-based diets may have lower selenium intake, averaging between 40 and 50 mcg daily, due to the varying selenium content in plant foods influenced by soil quality (2). A daily supplement of 50 to 70 mcg can help meet the RDA without exceeding safe limits. However, finding a 50 mcg supplement can be challenging; therefore, taking a 100 mcg supplement every other day is a practical alternative. While Brazil nuts are known for their high selenium content, the amount can vary significantly, ranging from 2.07 mg/kg to 68.15 mg/kg, depending on the soil in which they are grown (3). This variability makes them an unreliable source of selenium.
It's important to note that excessive selenium intake can lead to toxicity. The tolerable upper intake level (UL) for selenium is set at 400 mcg per day for adults (4). Regularly consuming amounts close to or above this threshold may result in adverse effects such as gastrointestinal disturbances, hair loss, fatigue, and, in severe cases, neurological damage (5). Therefore, while ensuring adequate selenium intake is essential, it is equally important to avoid excessive consumption.
See below for brands I recommend.
🌾 Zinc
Zinc is a vital mineral for metabolism, immune function, and cellular repair. Insufficient zinc intake can lead to issues such as hair loss, diarrhea, and delayed wound healing (1, 2, 3).
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for zinc varies by age and physiological status (4):
- Adult men: 11 mg per day
- Adult women: 8 mg per day
- Pregnant women: 11 mg per day
- Lactating women: 12 mg per day
Plant-based sources rich in zinc include legumes, nuts, whole grains, seeds, tofu, tempeh, and fortified breakfast cereals. While these foods contain phytates-compounds that can bind zinc and inhibit its absorption-a well-balanced diet with a variety of these foods typically provides sufficient zinc for most individuals (5). However, vegans and vegetarians are encouraged to aim for 1.5 times the RDA (6).
Excessive zinc intake can interfere with the absorption of essential minerals such as iron and copper (7). High doses of zinc may lead to nausea and vomiting. Therefore, routine zinc supplementation is not necessary for everyone. It is generally advised to avoid zinc supplementation unless a deficiency is confirmed or dietary intake is insufficient (8).
🄺 The Controversy Around Vitamin K Supplements
Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting and has been studied for potential roles in bone and cardiovascular health (1). However, the efficacy of vitamin K supplementation in these areas remains uncertain (2).
Conflicting Research on Bone and Heart Health
Studies on vitamin K and osteoporosis have produced inconsistent and unreliable results. Some major trials were later found to contain fabricated data, and when fraudulent studies are removed (3), systematic reviews conclude that vitamin K supplementation does not improve bone mineral density or reduce fracture risk (4). Similarly, while vitamin K is involved in calcium regulation in the arteries, clinical trials have failed to show that supplementation prevents arterial calcification, atherosclerosis, or heart disease (5).
Why Food Sources Matter More
While those with higher vitamin K levels in their bloodstream tend to have lower inflammation, this is largely because they consume more leafy greens and fewer animal products-not because they take supplements (6). In fact, just two leaves of kale provide over 70 micrograms of vitamin K, meeting daily requirements.
Do We Need Vitamin K2?
Vitamin K1, found in plants, is the primary dietary form. Some claim that vitamin K2, found in animal products and fermented foods, is essential, but research shows that the human body converts vitamin K1 from greens into the necessary forms of K2 (7). This means there's no established need to supplement with K2, especially when trials using it for bone and heart health have largely failed (8).
Potential Risks of Supplementation
Beyond the lack of proven benefits, vitamin K supplements have faced contamination and mislabeling issues, raising concerns about quality control. Additionally, one study on diabetes patients found that vitamin K2 supplements were associated with an increase in arterial calcification rather than a reduction (9).
Natto, Vitamin K₂, and Stronger Hearts & Bones
Natto, a traditional Japanese food made from fermented soybeans, is the richest dietary source of vitamin K2 (MK-7). This form of vitamin K activates two key proteins: matrix Gla protein (MGP), which helps prevent calcium from depositing in arteries as plaque, and osteocalcin, which directs calcium into bone where it belongs (10).
Epidemiological studies in Japan have shown striking benefits. Women who ate more natto had significantly lower rates of hip fractures, and cohorts consuming natto had reduced cardiovascular disease mortality (11, 12). Mechanistic research supports these findings: vitamin K2 keeps calcium phosphate crystals from accumulating in arteries, while enhancing bone mineralization.
Bottom Line: Eat Your Greens & Natto
Rather than relying on supplements, the best approach is to consume vitamin K naturally from leafy greens and natto, which not only provide vitamin K1 and K2 but also deliver additional bone-supporting nutrients, including calcium and magnesium. Green vegetables are consistently linked to better overall health, lower inflammation, and even a longer lifespan.
🌱 Magnesium: The Overlooked Mineral
FREE Magnesium PDF
Daily needs (RDA): Women: 310-320 mg/day. Men: 400-420 mg/day
RDAs are minimums to avoid deficiency (1).
You may need more if you experience the following:
- Experience chronic stress (2)
- Train hard (3)
- Use a sauna (Mg lost in sweat)
- Diabetes (4)
- GI issues(5)
- Drink excess alcohol
- Take high-dose zinc (>124 mg/day) (6)
Food First & Optimize Absorption
Ways to maximize dietary magnesium (7):
- Top foods: dark leafy greens, beans/lentils, nuts, seeds, whole grains.
- Unlock more Mg: light-steam or sauté greens; soak/sprout beans, lentils, seeds; cook oats; choose whole over refined grains.
- Mineral water bonus: some brands are naturally high in magnesium (check labels).
- Limit blockers: very high zinc, excess alcohol, or soda (8).
Supplements: What Works
How to optimize absorption:
- Well-absorbed forms: magnesium glycinate, citrate, malate, taurate (9).
- Less ideal for daily repletion: oxide (poorly absorbed); sulfate/chloride is often used for other purposes and can be harsher (10).
- Dosing tips (elemental Mg): Start with 100-150 mg/day with a meal; if needed, titrate to 200-300 mg/day, split in the morning and evening (11).
- Upper limit from supplements: ≤350 mg/day (to avoid GI side effects).
- Malate note: some find it a touch energizing-take earlier in the day.
- Interactions and Cautions: Magnesium can interact with certain medications, including levothyroxine, bisphosphonates, and tetracyclines/fluoroquinolones. If you take any medications or have kidney disease, consult your clinician.
Why Magnesium Matters
Reasons to optimize magnesium levels:
- Stress and recovery: stress hormones deplete Mg; topping up can aid sleep and resilience (12)
- Migraines: low Mg is linked; repletion may reduce frequency (13)
- Bones and vitamin D: about 60% of Mg is in bone; Mg helps activate vitamin D (14)
- Heart and blood pressure: Mg helps relax vessels; supplementing around ~300-400 mg/day in studies can modestly lower BP (15)
Bottom Line
Consider a magnesium supplement when intake is low or you have risk factors (chronic stress, heavy training/heat, diabetes or GI loss, high alcohol/zinc) or symptoms (cramps, migraines, poor sleep). Use a well-absorbed form at about 100-300 mg/day and consult your clinician if you have an underlying condition or are taking medications.
No evidence suggests that supplementing the RDA for (dietary) magnesium is harmful; conversely, abundant evidence suggests that doing so may be beneficial (16, 17). If you overshoot your magnesium supplement dose, diarrhea is the most common sign-it's why the adult UL for supplemental magnesium is 350 mg/day (18).
See below for brands I recommend.
💭 Final Thoughts on Essential Supplements for a Vegan Diet
A well-planned vegan diet can provide many essential nutrients, but certain supplements help fill common gaps. While whole foods should be the foundation, targeted supplementation ensures you meet your needs without deficiencies. Regular blood tests and a balanced approach will help you stay healthy and thrive on a plant-based diet.
🟡 Shop Supplements
🏋🏽 35 % off Cleanest Creatine
Creapure® and NSF Certified for Sport®. Highest quality standards. My go-to brand for purity and performance. DO NOT ENTER EMAIL in pop-up, proceed to ordering your product for best discount.
🪸 35% off Vegan Omega-3s
Highly absorbable triglyceride form and NSF Certified®. Get 35% off my go-to brand for purity. DO NOT ENTER EMAIL in pop-up, proceed to ordering your product for best discount.
☀️ 35% off Vegan Vitamin D3
2,000 IU vegan-friendly, NSF Certified®. Get 35% off my go-to brand for purity. DO NOT ENTER EMAIL in pop-up, proceed to ordering your product for best discount.
Note: As an Amazon Associate, I earn from qualifying purchases.
Shop Supplements
🗒️ FREE Supplement PDFs
💪🏼Creatine Dos & Don'ts
🪸Omega 3s
💊The 3 Basic Supplements
🫘 Magnesium
📰 Related Articles
👩🏽🍳 Enjoyed this article?
Let me know your thoughts on a Nutritionist's Guide to Supplements for Vegans & Vegetarians by leaving a ⭐️ rating below or sharing it on Instagram.
📋 References
Vitamin B12
Pawlak, R., Parrott, S. J., Raj, S., Cullum-Dugan, D., & Lucus, D. (2013). How prevalent is vitamin B(12) deficiency among vegetarians?. Nutrition reviews, 71(2), 110-117. https://doi.org/10.1111/nure.12001
Smith, A. D., Warren, M. J., & Refsum, H. (2018). Vitamin B12. Advances in food and nutrition research, 83, 215-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.afnr.2017.11.005
Reynolds E. Vitamin B12, folic acid, and the nervous system. Lancet Neurol. 2006 Nov;5(11):949-60. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70598-1. PMID: 17052662. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17052662/
Watanabe F. Vitamin B12 sources and bioavailability. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2007 Nov;232(10):1266-74. doi: 10.3181/0703-MR-67. PMID: 17959839. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17959839/
Willet, W. C., Skerrett, P. J., & Giovannucci, E. (2014). Diet, nutrition, and cancer: A review and future directions. BMJ, 349, g5226. https://www.bmj.com/content/349/bmj.g5226
Bor, M. V., von Castel-Roberts, K. M., Kauwell, G. P., Stabler, S. P., Allen, R. H., Maneval, D. R., Bailey, L. B., & Nexo, E. (2010). Daily intake of 4 to 7 microg dietary vitamin B-12 is associated with steady concentrations of vitamin B-12-related biomarkers in a healthy young population. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 91(3), 571-577. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.2009.28082
Darby, W. J., Bridgforth, E. B., Le Brocquy, J., Clark, S. L. Jr., De Oliveira, J. D., Kevany, J., McGanity, W. J., & Perez, C. (1958). Vitamin B12 requirement of adult man. The American journal of medicine, 25(5), 726-732. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9343(58)90010-x
Ströhle, A., Richter, M., González-Gross, M., Neuhäuser-Berthold, M., Wagner, K. H., Leschik-Bonnet, E., Egert, S., & German Nutrition Society (DGE) (2019). The Revised D-A-CH-Reference Values for the Intake of Vitamin B12 : Prevention of Deficiency and Beyond. Molecular nutrition & food research, 63(6), e1801178. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201801178
Kondo, H., Binder, M. J., Kolhouse, J. F., Smythe, W. R., Podell, E. R., & Allen, R. H. (1982). Presence and formation of cobalamin analogues in multivitamin-mineral pills. The Journal of clinical investigation, 70(4), 889-898. https://doi.org/10.1172/jci110685
Hannibal, L., Lysne, V., Bjørke-Monsen, A. L., Behringer, S., Grünert, S. C., Spiekerkoetter, U., Jacobsen, D. W., & Blom, H. J. (2016). Biomarkers and Algorithms for the Diagnosis of Vitamin B12 Deficiency. Frontiers in molecular biosciences, 3, 27. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2016.00027
Vitamin D
DeLuca HF. The control of calcium and phosphorus metabolism by the vitamin D endocrine system. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1980;355:1-17. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1980.tb21323.x. PMID: 7015957. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7015957/
Lappe JM. The Role of Vitamin D in Human Health: A Paradigm Shift. Journal of Evidence-Based Complementary & Alternative Medicine. 2011;16(1):58-72. doi:10.1177/1533210110392952
Holick MF, Chen TC. Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Apr;87(4):1080S-6S. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/87.4.1080S. PMID: 18400738. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1533210110392952
Marie B Demay, Anastassios G Pittas, Daniel D Bikle, Dima L Diab, Mairead E Kiely, Marise Lazaretti-Castro, Paul Lips, Deborah M Mitchell, M Hassan Murad, Shelley Powers, Sudhaker D Rao, Robert Scragg, John A Tayek, Amy M Valent, Judith M E Walsh, Christopher R McCartney, Vitamin D for the Prevention of Disease: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline, The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, Volume 109, Issue 8, August 2024, Pages 1907-1947, https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgae290
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. (n.d.). Vitamin D. The Nutrition Source. Retrieved from https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/vitamin-d/
Pludowski P, Grant WB, Karras SN, Zittermann A, Pilz S. Vitamin D Supplementation: A Review of the Evidence Arguing for a Daily Dose of 2000 International Units (50 µg) of Vitamin D for Adults in the General Population. Nutrients. 2024 Jan 29;16(3):391. doi: 10.3390/nu16030391. PMID: 38337676; PMCID: PMC10857599. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38337676/
Garland CF, Kim JJ, Mohr SB, Gorham ED, Grant WB, Giovannucci EL, Baggerly L, Hofflich H, Ramsdell JW, Zeng K, Heaney RP. Meta-analysis of all-cause mortality according to serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D. Am J Public Health. 2014 Aug;104(8):e43-50. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2014.302034. Epub 2014 Jun 12. PMID: 24922127; PMCID: PMC4103214. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24922127/
Reider CA, Chung RY, Devarshi PP, Grant RW, Hazels Mitmesser S. Inadequacy of Immune Health Nutrients: Intakes in US Adults, the 2005-2016 NHANES. Nutrients. 2020 Jun 10;12(6):1735. doi: 10.3390/nu12061735. PMID: 32531972; PMCID: PMC7352522. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32531972/
Zittermann A, Kuhn J, Dreier J, Knabbe C, Gummert JF, Börgermann J. Vitamin D status and the risk of major adverse cardiac and cerebrovascular events in cardiac surgery. Eur Heart J. 2013 May;34(18):1358-64. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehs468. Epub 2013 Jan 12. PMID: 23315905. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23315905/
Galior K, Grebe S, Singh R. Development of Vitamin D Toxicity from Overcorrection of Vitamin D Deficiency: A Review of Case Reports. Nutrients. 2018; 10(8):953. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10080953
Iodine
Zimmermann MB, Boelaert K. Iodine deficiency and thyroid disorders. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015 Apr;3(4):286-95. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(14)70225-6. Epub 2015 Jan 13. PMID: 25591468. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25591468/
Leung AM, Lamar A, He X, Braverman LE, Pearce EN. Iodine status and thyroid function of Boston-area vegetarians and vegans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Aug;96(8):E1303-7. doi: 10.1210/jc.2011-0256. Epub 2011 May 25. PMID: 21613354; PMCID: PMC3206519. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21613354/
Office of Dietary Supplements. (2022). Iodine: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved from https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Iodine-HealthProfessional/
Teas, J., Pino, S., Critchley, A., & Braverman, L. E. (2004). Variability of iodine content in common commercially available edible seaweeds. Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association, 14(10), 836-841. https://doi.org/10.1089/thy.2004.14.836
Werorilangi, S., Hovey, R., Umar, W., Hasyim, H., Harusi, N. M. R., Dexter, K. F., Langford, A., Ruhon, R., & Walyandra, Z. Z. (2023). End-of-life of plastics used in seaweed aquaculture in South Sulawesi. The Australia-Indonesia Centre. https://pair.australiaindonesiacentre.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/PAIR_End-of-life-of-plastics-used-in-seaweed-aquaculture-in-South-Sulawesi.pdf
Kutralam-Muniasamy, G., Shruti, V., & Pérez-Guevara, F. (2024). Microplastic contamination in commercially packaged edible seaweeds and exposure of the ethnic minority and local population in Mexico. Food Research International, 176, 113840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113840
Xiao X, Liu S, Li L, Li R, Zhao X, Yin N, She X, Peijnenburg W, Cui X, Luo Y. Seaweeds as a major source of dietary microplastics exposure in East Asia. Food Chem. 2024 Aug 30;450:139317. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.139317. Epub 2024 Apr 10. PMID: 38636378. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38636378/
Yokoi, K., & Konomi, A. (2012). Toxicity of so-called edible hijiki seaweed (Sargassum fusiforme) containing inorganic arsenic. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 50(7), 2291-2297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2012.04.029
Aakre, I., Solli, D. D., Markhus, M. W., Mæhre, H. K., Dahl, L., Henjum, S., Alexander, J., Korneliussen, P. A., Madsen, L., & Kjellevold, M. (2021). Commercially available kelp and seaweed products - valuable iodine source or risk of excess intake?. Food & nutrition research, 65, 10.29219/fnr.v65.7584. https://doi.org/10.29219/fnr.v65.7584
Leung, A. M., Lamar, A., He, X., Braverman, L. E., & Pearce, E. N. (2011). Iodine status and thyroid function of Boston-area vegetarians and vegans. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism, 96(8), E1303-E1307. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-0256
Paśko, P., Okoń, K., Krośniak, M., Prochownik, E., Żmudzki, P., Kryczyk-Kozioł, J., & Zagrodzki, P. (2018). Interaction between iodine and glucosinolates in rutabaga sprouts and selected biomarkers of thyroid function in male rats. Journal of trace elements in medicine and biology : organ of the Society for Minerals and Trace Elements (GMS), 46, 110-116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtemb.2017.12.002
Calcium
Bolland, M. J., Avenell, A., Baron, J. A., Grey, A., MacLennan, G. S., Gamble, G. D., & Reid, I. R. (2011). Effect of calcium supplements on risk of myocardial infarction and cardiovascular events: Meta-analysis. BMJ, 342, d2040. https://www.bmj.com/content/342/bmj.d2040
Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Calcium supplements: Should you take them? Retrieved from https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/calcium-supplements-should-you-take-them
Wikipedia contributors. (n.d.). Milk-alkali syndrome. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milk-alkali_syndrome
Bolland, M. J., Grey, A., & Reid, I. R. (2021). Calcium supplements and cardiovascular risk: 5 years on. Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety, 12, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042098621991270
López-González, B., Becerra-Tomás, N., Babio, N., & Salas-Salvadó, J. (2021). Dairy products, calcium, and plant-based alternatives and cardiometabolic diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Advances in Nutrition, 12(5), 1685-1699. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmab065
Appleby, P., Roddam, A., Allen, N., & Key, T. (2007). Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford. European journal of clinical nutrition, 61(12), 1400-1406. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659
Lidder, S., & Webb, A. J. (2013). Vascular effects of dietary nitrate (as found in green leafy vegetables and beetroot) via the nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway. British journal of clinical pharmacology, 75(3), 677-696. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2125.2012.04420.x
Heaney, R. P., & Weaver, C. M. (1989). Oxalate: effect on calcium absorbability. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 50(4), 830-832. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/50.4.830
Johns Hopkins Medicine. (n.d.). Calcium supplements: Should you take them? Johns Hopkins Medicine. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/heart-health
Institute of Medicine. (2011). Dietary reference intakes for calcium and vitamin D. National Academies Press. Retrieved from https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/13050/chapter/7#348
Harvard Health Publishing. (2013, September 30). Expert says guidelines recommend too much calcium. Harvard Health. https://www.health.harvard.edu/press_releases/expert-says-guidelines-recommend-too-much-calcium
Sotos-Prieto M, Rodriguez-Artalejo F, Fung TT, Meyer HE, Hu FB, Willett WC, Bhupathiraju SN. Plant-Based Diets and Risk of Hip Fracture in Postmenopausal Women. JAMA Netw Open. 2024 Feb 5;7(2):e241107. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.1107. PMID: 38421643; PMCID: PMC10905300. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10905300/
Iron
Abbaspour N, Hurrell R, Kelishadi R. Review on iron and its importance for human health. J Res Med Sci. 2014 Feb;19(2):164-74. PMID: 24778671; PMCID: PMC3999603. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3999603/
Institute of Medicine. (2001). Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc. National Academies Press. Retrieved from https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/10026/chapter/11
Saunders AV, Craig WJ, Baines SK, Posen JS. Iron and vegetarian diets. Med J Aust. 2013 Aug 19;199(S4):S11-6. doi: 10.5694/mja11.11494. PMID: 25369923. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25369923/
Craig WJ, Mangels AR; American Dietetic Association. Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets. J Am Diet Assoc. 2009 Jul;109(7):1266-82. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027. PMID: 19562864. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19562864/
Craig WJ. Health effects of vegan diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 May;89(5):1627S-1633S. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736N. Epub 2009 Mar 11. PMID: 19279075. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19279075/
Lynch, S. R., & Cook, J. D. (1980). Interaction of vitamin C and iron. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 355, 32-44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1980.tb21325.x
Sharp P. A. (2010). Intestinal iron absorption: regulation by dietary & systemic factors. International journal for vitamin and nutrition research. Internationale Zeitschrift fur Vitamin- und Ernahrungsforschung. Journal international de vitaminologie et de nutrition, 80 (4-5), 231-242. https://doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831/a000029
West, A. R., & Oates, P. S. (2008). Mechanisms of heme iron absorption: Current questions and controversies. World Journal of Gastroenterology, 14(26), 4101-4110. https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.14.4101
Geissler, C., & Singh, M. (2011). Iron, meat and health. Nutrients, 3(3), 283-316. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu3030283
Omega 3s
Guesnet P, Alessandri JM. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and the developing central nervous system (CNS) - Implications for dietary recommendations. Biochimie. 2011 Jan;93(1):7-12. doi: 10.1016/j.biochi.2010.05.005. Epub 2010 May 15. PMID: 20478353. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20478353/
Li K, Huang T, Zheng J, Wu K, Li D. Effect of marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on C-reactive protein, interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor α: a meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2014 Feb 5;9(2):e88103. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0088103. PMID: 24505395; PMCID: PMC3914936. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24505395/
Greenberg JA, Bell SJ, Ausdal WV. Omega-3 Fatty Acid supplementation during pregnancy. Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2008 Fall;1(4):162-9. PMID: 19173020; PMCID: PMC2621042. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2621042/
Martins JG. EPA but not DHA appears to be responsible for the efficacy of omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation in depression: evidence from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Am Coll Nutr. 2009 Oct;28(5):525-42. doi: 10.1080/07315724.2009.10719785. PMID: 20439549. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20439549/
Zheng JS, Hu XJ, Zhao YM, Yang J, Li D. Intake of fish and marine n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and risk of breast cancer: meta-analysis of data from 21 independent prospective cohort studies. BMJ. 2013 Jun 27;346:f3706. doi: 10.1136/bmj.f3706. PMID: 23814120. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23814120/
Swanson, D., Block, R., & Mousa, S. A. (2012). Omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA: health benefits throughout life. Advances in nutrition (Bethesda, Md.), 3(1), 1-7. https://doi.org/10.3945/an.111.000893
Davis BC, Kris-Etherton PM. Achieving optimal essential fatty acid status in vegetarians: current knowledge and practical implications. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 Sep;78(3 Suppl):640S-646S. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/78.3.640S. PMID: 12936959. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12936959/
Sanders TA. DHA status of vegetarians. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2009 Aug-Sep;81(2-3):137-41. doi: 10.1016/j.plefa.2009.05.013. Epub 2009 Jun 4. PMID: 19500961. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19500961/
Saunders AV, Davis BC, Garg ML. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vegetarian diets. Med J Aust. 2013 Aug 19;199(S4):S22-6. doi: 10.5694/mja11.11507. PMID: 25369925. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25369925/
Manson, J. E., Cook, N. R., Lee, I. M., Christen, W., Bassuk, S. S., Mora, S., ... & Buring, J. E. (2019). Marine n-3 Fatty Acids and Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer. The New England Journal of Medicine, 380(1), 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1811403
Harris, W. S., & Von Schacky, C. (2004). The Omega-3 Index: a new risk factor for death from coronary heart disease?. Preventive medicine, 39(1), 212-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.02.030
Creatine
Stares, A., & Bains, M. (2020). The Additive Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Exercise Training in an Aging Population: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Journal of geriatric physical therapy (2001), 43(2), 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1519/JPT.0000000000000222
Forbes, S. C., Ostojic, S. M., Souza-Junior, T. P., & Candow, D. G. (2022). A high dose of creatine combined with resistance training appears to be required to augment indices of bone health in older adults. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 78(3), 183-186. https://karger.com/anm/article/78/3/183/821423/A-High-Dose-of-Creatine-Combined-with-Resistance
Syrotuik, Daniel G.; Bell, Gordon J.; Burnham, Robert; Sim, Lorraine L.; Calvert, Robert A.; MacLean, Ian M. Absolute and Relative Strength Performance Following Creatine Monohydrate Supplementation Combined With Periodized Resistance Training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 14(2):p 182-190, May 2000. https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/abstract/2000/05000/absolute_and_relative_strength_performance.11.aspx
Beaudart, C., Dawson, A., Shaw, S. C., Harvey, N. C., Kanis, J. A., Binkley, N., Reginster, J. Y., Chapurlat, R., Chan, D. C., Bruyère, O., Rizzoli, R., Cooper, C., Dennison, E. M., & IOF-ESCEO Sarcopenia Working Group (2017). Nutrition and physical activity in the prevention and treatment of sarcopenia: systematic review. Osteoporosis international : a journal established as result of cooperation between the European Foundation for Osteoporosis and the National Osteoporosis Foundation of the USA, 28(6), 1817-1833. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-017-3980-9
Dolan, E., Artioli, G. G., Pereira, R. M. R., & Gualano, B. (2019). Muscular Atrophy and Sarcopenia in the Elderly: Is There a Role for Creatine Supplementation?. Biomolecules, 9(11), 642. https://doi.org/10.3390/biom9110642
Ribeiro, F., Longobardi, I., Perim, P., Duarte, B., Ferreira, P., Gualano, B., Roschel, H., & Saunders, B. (2021). Timing of Creatine Supplementation around Exercise: A Real Concern?. Nutrients, 13(8), 2844. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082844
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). (2004). Opinion of the Scientific Panel on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food (AFC) on a request from the Commission related to creatine monohydrate for use in foods for particular nutritional uses. EFSA Journal, 36, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2004.36
Selenium
Office of Dietary Supplements. (2022). Selenium: Fact sheet for health professionals. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved from https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Selenium-HealthProfessional/
Klein L, Dawczynski C, Schwarz M, Maares M, Kipp K, Haase H, Kipp AP. Selenium, Zinc, and Copper Status of Vegetarians and Vegans in Comparison to Omnivores in the Nutritional Evaluation (NuEva) Study. Nutrients. 2023 Aug 11;15(16):3538. doi: 10.3390/nu15163538. PMID: 37630729; PMCID: PMC10459941. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10459941/
Silva Junior, F. M. R., Guimarães, G. A., Silva, A. P. S., Silva, G. R., Souza, A. P. S., da Silva, G. L., & Korn, M. G. A. (2017). Selenium in Brazil nuts: An analysis of composition variability in different production regions. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 64, 147-151. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28923728/
Office of Dietary Supplements. (2022). Selenium: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved from https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Selenium-HealthProfessional/
MacFarquhar, J. K., Broussard, D. L., Melstrom, P., Hutchinson, R., Wolkin, A., Martin, C., Burk, R. F., Dunn, J. R., Green, A. L., Hammond, R., Schaffner, W., & Jones, T. F. (2010). Acute selenium toxicity associated with a dietary supplement. Archives of Internal Medicine, 170(3), 256-261. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3225252/
Zinc
Prasad, A. S. (2013). Discovery of human zinc deficiency: Its impact on human health and disease. Advances in Nutrition, 4(2), 176-190. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3724376/
Cleveland Clinic. (n.d.). Zinc deficiency: Symptoms, causes, treatment & prevention. Retrieved from https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/zinc-deficiency
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. (n.d.). Zinc. Retrieved from https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/zinc/
Office of Dietary Supplements. (2022). Zinc: Fact Sheet for Consumers. National Institutes of Health. Retrieved from https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Zinc-Consumer/
Institute of Medicine. (2001). Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. National Academies Press. Retrieved from http://www.nap.edu/read/10026/chapter/14
Gibson, R. S., Heath, A. L., & Szymlek-Gay, E. A. (2014). Is iron and zinc nutrition a concern for vegetarian infants and young children? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(1), 459S-468S. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25369924/
Karger Publishers. (n.d.). Zinc Oversupplementation and Copper Deficiency: A Risk Worth Noting. Retrieved from https://thewaitingroom.karger.com/knowledge-transfer/zinc-oversupplementation-and-copper-deficiency/
Vitamin K
Haugsgjerd TR, Egeland GM, Nygård OK, Vinknes KJ, Sulo G, Lysne V, Igland J, Tell GS. Association of dietary vitamin K and risk of coronary heart disease in middle-age adults: the Hordaland Health Study Cohort. BMJ Open. 2020 May 21;10(5):e035953. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035953. PMID: 32444431; PMCID: PMC7247390.
Palermo A, Tuccinardi D, D'Onofrio L, Watanabe M, Maggi D, Maurizi AR, Greto V, Buzzetti R, Napoli N, Pozzilli P, Manfrini S. Vitamin K and osteoporosis: Myth or reality? Metabolism. 2017 May;70:57-71. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2017.01.032. Epub 2017 Feb 4. PMID: 28403946.
Sato Y, Honda Y, Iwamoto J. RETRACTED: Etidronate for fracture prevention in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A randomized controlled trial. Bone. 2018 Jan;106:214. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2017.10.008. PMID: 29150014.
Avenell A, Grey A, Gamble GD, Bolland MJ. Concerns About the Integrity of the Yamaguchi Osteoporosis Prevention Study (YOPS) Report, Am J Med. 2004;117:549-555. Am J Med. 2020 Jun;133(6):e311-e314. doi: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2020.02.007. PMID: 32532372.
Vlasschaert C, Goss CJ, Pilkey NG, McKeown S, Holden RM. Vitamin K Supplementation for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Where Is the Evidence? A Systematic Review of Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2020 Sep 23;12(10):2909. doi: 10.3390/nu12102909. PMID: 32977548; PMCID: PMC7598164.
Braam L, McKeown N, Jacques P, Lichtenstein A, Vermeer C, Wilson P, Booth S. Dietary phylloquinone intake as a potential marker for a heart-healthy dietary pattern in the Framingham Offspring cohort. J Am Diet Assoc. 2004 Sep;104(9):1410-4. doi: 10.1016/j.jada.2004.06.021. PMID: 15354158.
Nakagawa K, Hirota Y, Sawada N, Yuge N, Watanabe M, Uchino Y, Okuda N, Shimomura Y, Suhara Y, Okano T. Identification of UBIAD1 as a novel human menaquinone-4 biosynthetic enzyme. Nature. 2010 Nov 4;468(7320):117-21. doi: 10.1038/nature09464. Epub 2010 Oct 17. PMID: 20953171.
Zwakenberg SR, de Jong PA, Bartstra JW, van Asperen R, Westerink J, de Valk H, Slart RHJA, Luurtsema G, Wolterink JM, de Borst GJ, van Herwaarden JA, van de Ree MA, Schurgers LJ, van der Schouw YT, Beulens JWJ. The effect of menaquinone-7 supplementation on vascular calcification in patients with diabetes: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019 Oct 1;110(4):883-890. doi: 10.1093/ajcn/nqz147. PMID: 31387121; PMCID: PMC6766434.
Hasific S, Øvrehus KA, Hosbond S, Lambrechtsen J, Kumarathurai P, Mejldal A, Ravn EJ, Rasmussen LM, Gerke O, Mickley H, Diederichsen A. Effects of vitamins K2 and D3 supplementation in patients with severe coronary artery calcification: a study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open. 2023 Jul 14;13(7):e073233. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2023-073233. PMID: 37451735; PMCID: PMC10351276.
Hauschka PV, Lian JB, Cole DE, Gundberg CM. Osteocalcin and matrix Gla protein: vitamin K-dependent proteins in bone. Physiol Rev. 1989 Jul;69(3):990-1047. doi: 10.1152/physrev.1989.69.3.990. PMID: 2664828. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2664828/
Kojima A, Ikehara S, Kamiya K, Kajita E, Sato Y, Kouda K, Tamaki J, Kagamimori S, Iki M. Natto Intake is Inversely Associated with Osteoporotic Fracture Risk in Postmenopausal Japanese Women. J Nutr. 2020 Mar 1;150(3):599-605. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxz292. Erratum in: J Nutr. 2021 Mar 11;151(3):742-743. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxaa443. PMID: 31825069. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31825069/
Nagata C, Wada K, Tamura T, Konishi K, Goto Y, Koda S, Kawachi T, Tsuji M, Nakamura K. Dietary soy and natto intake and cardiovascular disease mortality in Japanese adults: the Takayama study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2017 Feb;105(2):426-431. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.116.137281. Epub 2016 Dec 7. PMID: 27927636. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27927636/
Magnesium
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. (n.d.). Magnesium. The Nutrition Source. https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/magnesium/
Pickering, G., Mazur, A., Trousselard, M., Bienkowski, P., Yaltsewa, N., Amessou, M., Noah, L., & Pouteau, E. (2020). Magnesium Status and Stress: The Vicious Circle Concept Revisited. Nutrients, 12(12), 3672. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12123672 https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/12/12/3672
Joborn, H., Åkerström, G., & Ljunghall, S. (1985). Effects of exogenous catecholamines and exercise on plasma magnesium concentrations. Clinical Endocrinology, 23(3), 219-226. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2265.1985.tb00217.x
Barbagallo, M., & Dominguez, L. J. (2007). Magnesium metabolism in type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 458(1), 40-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abb.2006.05.007
Schiopu, C., Ștefănescu, G., Diaconescu, S., Bălan, G. G., Gimiga, N., Rusu, E., Moldovan, C. A., Popa, B., Tataranu, E., Olteanu, A. V., Boloș, A., & Ștefănescu, C. (2022). Magnesium Orotate and the Microbiome-Gut-Brain Axis Modulation: New Approaches in Psychological Comorbidities of Gastrointestinal Functional Disorders. Nutrients, 14(8), 1567. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14081567
Spencer H, Norris C, Williams D. Inhibitory effects of zinc on magnesium balance and magnesium absorption in man. J Am Coll Nutr. 1994 Oct;13(5):479-84. doi: 10.1080/07315724.1994.10718438. PMID: 7836627. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7836627/
Helbig, E., de Oliveira, A. C., da Silva Queiroz, K., & Reis, S. M. P. M. (2003). Effect of soaking prior to cooking on the levels of phytate and tannin of the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and the protein value. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology, 49(2), 81-86. https://doi.org/10.3177/jnsv.49.81
Dick M, Evans RA, Watson L. Effect of ethanol on magnesium excretion. J Clin Pathol. 1969 Mar;22(2):152-3. doi: 10.1136/jcp.22.2.152. PMID: 5776545; PMCID: PMC474024. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC474024/
Uysal N, Kizildag S, Yuce Z, Guvendi G, Kandis S, Koc B, Karakilic A, Camsari UM, Ates M. Timeline (Bioavailability) of Magnesium Compounds in Hours: Which Magnesium Compound Works Best? Biol Trace Elem Res. 2019 Jan;187(1):128-136. doi: 10.1007/s12011-018-1351-9. Epub 2018 Apr 21. PMID: 29679349. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29679349/
Blancquaert L, Vervaet C, Derave W. Predicting and Testing Bioavailability of Magnesium Supplements. Nutrients. 2019 Jul 20;11(7):1663. doi: 10.3390/nu11071663. PMID: 31330811; PMCID: PMC6683096. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6683096/
Guerrera, M. P., Volpe, S. L., & Mao, J. J. (2009). Therapeutic uses of magnesium. American Family Physician, 80(2), 157-162. https://www.aafp.org/pubs/afp/issues/2009/0715/p157.html
Abbasi B, Kimiagar M, Sadeghniiat K, Shirazi MM, Hedayati M, Rashidkhani B. The effect of magnesium supplementation on primary insomnia in elderly: A double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Res Med Sci. 2012 Dec;17(12):1161-9. PMID: 23853635; PMCID: PMC3703169. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23853635/
von Luckner, A., & Riederer, F. (2018). Magnesium in migraine prophylaxis-Is there an evidence-based rationale? A systematic review. Headache: The Journal of Head and Face Pain, 58(2), 199-209. https://doi.org/10.1111/head.13217
Groenendijk, I., van Delft, M., Versloot, P., van Loon, L. J. C., & de Groot, L. C. P. G. M. (2022). Impact of magnesium on bone health in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Bone, 154, 116233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2021.116233
Zhang, X., Li, Y., Del Gobbo, L. C., Rosanoff, A., Wang, J., Zhang, W., & Song, Y. (2016). Effects of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure: A meta-analysis of randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials. Hypertension, 68(2), 324-333. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.116.07664
Musso, C. G. (2009). Magnesium metabolism in health and disease. International Urology and Nephrology, 41(2), 357-362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11255-009-9548-7
Bagheri, A., Naghshi, S., Sadeghi, O., Larijani, B., & Esmaillzadeh, A. (2021). Total, dietary, and supplemental magnesium intakes and risk of all-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Advances in Nutrition, 12(4), 1196-1210. https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmab001
Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. (n.d.). Magnesium. The Nutrition Source. https://nutritionsource.hsph.harvard.edu/magnesium/
Robin Malone says
What brand of Vitamin B12 do you recommend?
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
https://linksta.io/ff9e431e
Candyce Monce says
Cool Post.
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Thank you!
Beth says
Thank you for all that you do and offer. Which Omega-3 would you recommend if I'm not a vegan but also don't consume a lot of meat? I do have canned sardines/ mackerel once or twice a week.
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
I suggest taking this clean vegan omega-3. It is well absorbed. Take it on days when you do not have fish. https://crrnt.app/MOME/7eaMpEmb
Beth says
Thank you so much as always!
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
You are most welcome!
Beth says
Do you think taking this omega-3 outweighs the benefits of taking cod liver oil?
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Hi. I prefer the vegan omega-3 because it delivers the same EPA and DHA as fish oil, without the vitamin A risks, contamination concerns, or environmental impact.
Nick says
Do you ever use protein powders?
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Yes, sometimes. I have my favorite one linked here. https://cookingforpeanuts.com/links/
KenYah says
I'm pleased to here that you are developing a printable form of this very important information. Thank you Nisha for all that you do!!
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Thanks for the reminder!
Kelly Gravina says
Is there a printable version of this please:)
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
I will have one soon!
Valerie says
I'd like to suggest adding choline to the list. My memory was getting worse and worse, and I tried everything! Finally I realized that my diet had very little choline in it, and it's a more newly-discovered nutrient, so it's not in my multivitamins. I'm now taking phosphatidyl-choline supplements, and my memory is working again!!! The change was dramatic. Definitely worth reading about -- it was life-changing for me.
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
I am glad to hear you are feeling better! Have you read this article? https://www.pcrm.org/news/blog/clearing-choline-confusion
Chris says
Hi Nisha, thank you for this great info on supplementing when on an vegan/plant based diet, SO detailed!
A question, it seems so many of the foods that are rich in calcium, that I’ve been compiling a list of, are also high in Oxalates, such as Soya (so Tofu?) White beans, some Greens, Beets, Dates.
If I’m understanding this correctly, that this means there’s a reduction in available Calcium because of this, are there other foods to include when eating these that can reduce the oxalate effect on calcium?
Or, hopefully, I’m just completely off on the whole Calcium, Oxalate thing 🙂
Thank you Nisha
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Hi. I am in the process of writing a complete guide on calcium on a plant-based diet. Stay tuned!
Dilushani says
Hi Nisha, I wasn't able to see the info regarding "always taking B12 alone and not part of a multivitamin". I clicked on the reference but didn't see that point being made. Could you please clarify? Thank you
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Hi, The study linked there explains about Bioavailability. The link works. I am not sure what you mean.
Catherine says
I also saw "always take B12 alone and not part of a multivitamin" but I can't find where it says that now. I specifically did not get a B Complex multivitamin because of that.
Nisha, would you confirm that is the correct way to take B12? Alone on an empty stomach? In your buying list I saw B12 1000mcg nuggets, so I plan on taking that 2x a week for a total of 2000mcg per week.
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Yes alone, sublingual!
Heather Taylor says
This is a great article, thank you for posting.
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Thank you for taking the time to read it and comment. I appreciate it!
Linda says
Thanks for your time and research in producing the guide, Essential Supplements for a Vegan Diet. Needed. I also ordered your cookbook and so look forward to having it in my hands. A 'well planned vegan diet' is what I'm establishing for myself ~ with your help. Thank you.
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Thank you so much for taking the time to read it. I hope this helps you on your journey! Thank you for purchasing my book!
Thea McFarlane says
✨️ thankyou Nisha 💚 This article is excellent 👏 🌟🤗🙌❣️ I am subscribed to your youtube 😀 I live in Queensland Australia 🌏🌊💚 I will share it to other folk 🤗🙌❣️ Much Love to You & All Other Good Folk 💚💚💚✨️
Nisha Melvani, RDN says
Hi! Thank you so much for your comment. I truly appreciate the feedback. Thank you for sharing it.